Language questions and answers

What is a ‘question and answer’ and ‘statement and response’ called?  Adjacency pair.

What is a term for saying ‘yeah’ or ‘uh huh’ while someone else is talking? Back- channel agreement.

What is it called when talk flows swiftly from one turn to the next? Latched talk

What’s it called when you affect the data you are studying by investigating it? The observer’s paradox


Your investigation data needs to be ethical, comparable and….? Reliable

What does AO3 award marks for? Context 

What does GRAPE stand for? Genre         Reception              Audience          Purpose          Expectations

You need to analyse texts for how they make meanings and….? Representations

Name two terms from the framework ‘lexis’. Synonyms and Antonyms

Which of the Ds was Tannen’s theory? Difference

Name three deficit features. Tag questions, empty adjectives and hedges

What did Cameron say? ‘’Your genes don’t determine your jeans’’

Where did Trudgill do his NORMS research? Norwich

Did the island locals in Martha’s Vineyard show over or covert prestige? Covert prestige

Was there more or less pronunciation of the post-vocalic R sound in more expensive stores in Labov’s ‘fourth floor’ study? More  

What is it called when children apply standard grammatical rules to irregular verbs and nouns? Overgeneralisation

How many morphemes are in the following quote? ‘’now you can’t exactly be like Jesus (0.5) instead you just get some help’’ 15

What is it the stage after the two-word stage called? Telegraphic stage

What was Halliday’s function for getting your needs met? Instrumental

Who did the research on his son and discovered that caregivers simplify the utterance around a word that is about to be learned? Dr. Deb Roy  

Child Language Development (CLD)

Theory:

• Noam Chomsky FoxP2 - medical research which has identified DNA that is in charge of language. This DNA code enables us to develop language from birth.
• Deb Roy-  ''the speech home project'', where Deb Roy recorded his son's speech every day, since the day he was born until he reached 2, to find out how the child's language changes. In order to do so, the parents converged their language to adapt to the certain development stage (when they child was using simple words the did to, however as the child started using more developed language the parents' language also became more complex). The experiment highlighted that child's semantic awareness outstrips their phonological ability.
• Stephen Pinker- found out that children say things they have never heard before, therefore they are born with an ability to speak.
• Jean Berko Gleason- developed a 'Wug test' which is a strong evidence that we are born with an ability to speak. Therefore, parents/care givers should provide children with different opportunities to speak in a different context, as it enables them for further language development.

Language:

• Language is a unique ability that defines us as humans.
• It is also a sophisticated skill, that children learn with minimal effort.
• If a child is exposed to two languages at the same time they will learn them both.
• At the very early stage of life, children are ale to communicate through the five senses (sight, touch, smell, hearing, taste) without using words

Language development:

• At around 18 months a child learns about 10 words a day (this mostly includes: concrete nouns, proper nouns and common nouns)
• If a person develops language after puberty, they will never be able to fully acquire language
• Children at the age of 18 months will have a productive vocabulary of around 50 words
• We develop our language through: listening to others speaking, imitation and reinforcement (copy+ reproduce), play and using language with others in different contexts

                                                                                                                                                                                       
Useful links:
http://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/english/AQA-7701-7702-GLOSSARY.PDF - glossary of key terms
http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b006qtnz/episodes/player -''Word of Mouth'' episodes

''Men keep their turn by avoiding pauses at clause boundaries, by using utterance incompletors ('firstly..' 'but..' and 'so..') by fillers ('mm,' 'er'), by raising their voices, speeding up and avoiding 'nominating' eye contact.''


Source: ''Sociolinguistics'', author: Peter Stockwell 2002, London: Routledge

The Comparison of Text A and Text B

Both texts significantly vary in the types of features that are used throughout. Text A uses attractive graphology; animations and images which are quite eye-catching and will mostly appeal to young adults. Whereas the text B features only two images which are not particularly related to the topic. Therefore, this text will mostly attract older audience, because they are more likely to care about the content rather than the images. Looking closer into linguistic features of both texts, text A includes numerous imperatives such as ''find solutions'' and ''take part'' to persuade the readers to interact and engage in what the website has to offer. On the other hand, text B features a range of declaratives ''turnout was'' and ''looses included'' which role is to inform the readers about the results of the elections. Therefore, the purposes of both texts also vary.

Text B BBC News Report

The genre of this text is an online article written in the form of a news report, published on the BBC website. The headline, which is a declarative; ''Labour wins majority on Bristol City Council'' is quite simple because it gives the readers an overview of what the report is actually about. Therefore, readers who have supported the Labour party may be interested in the report, whereas those who are oppose it may not bother reading it, as they can already assume that most of the report will be mostly focused on the Labour party. The use of a dynamic verb ''wins'' gives across a strong meaning as it portrays the success of the Labour party. Providing the reader with a clear summery of the result; may be useful for those who do not have the pragmatic understanding to be able to understand the remaining content of the report. However, the use of a noun ''majority'' is almost like a surprise, because it does not state a particular figure. This noun might have been used to interest the readers and make them want to read the report; as it will be the only way to find out about those figures. Throughout the report I can spot various abbreviations such as '' Greens'' and ''Lib Dems'' which will already be familiar to readers who have an interest in politics. Therefore, the intended audience are adults who have an interest in politics and elections. Another simple yet powerful sentence is '' UKIP lost its only seat in the city'', which suggests of the lack of focus on the UKIP party since it was only mentioned briefly. The use of verb ''lost'' brings out the connotations of failure and disaster, which represents the negative image of the UKIP party that could also possibly suggest the dislike of the party shared by the producer of the report. Different candidates were also represented in different ways, for instance George Ferguson a leader of the Labour party since 2012 was represented as an ''independent candidate''. The adjective 'independent' portrays Ferguson as a strong and successful candidate who managed to hold his position for over 4 years. The producer of the report also stated that Ferguson held a ''leadership position'' which suggests that he had influencial power over others.

Text A YouGov website

The genre of this text is a website, funded by the government. Its primary purpose is to persuade the receivers to have a look at the various articles and read about the aspects that the receiver has the most interest in. This purpose is mostly illustrated by the use of a synthetic personalisation ''welcome''  at the very top of the website, which shows the positive approach that the producer has towards the readers. It also represents the 'bond' that the producer creates with the receiver, to make them feel appreciated; as this will make people want to stay on the website. The use of an interrogative ''What would you like to do?'' suggests of a wide range of options that the website provides for its readers; which helps to hook them into its content as they want to know what is there for them. It also presents that the readers have a choice, which means that the are not being forced to only read a particular article for instance. Whereas, the use a direct address ''you'' presents that the producer prioritises its readers and wants them to feel special and just as if they were being cared for. This will make an impression of kindness which will most likely persuade the readers to stay on the website. The secondary purpose of the YouGov website is to get the readers involved into various actions such as expressing own opinion in a daily poll. This is being done through the use of an affordance which is a 'take part' button, because it allows the readers to take part in the poll and present their views on the current issues. The main reason the readers are given an opportunity of expressing their views in a poll is because it will make them know that they can also contribute in certain actions rather than just read about them. Therefore, they might become willing on visiting the website more often in order to regularly contribute and express their views. However, the graphology of the website, such as its layout is a constraint, because the information is spread out across the page which might discourage some readers from reading further onto the website. The use of modern features such as animations and a combination of grey, white and red colours portrays that the website is aimed at young adults, because they will most likely get attracted to this theme and the unique design. The use of images supported by the range of words from the lexical field of business (membership, debate) present that the website also appeals to business people, as they will share the pragmatic understanding of current issues. The website also features a limited range of adjectives such as ''amazing'' and ''new'' as well as a superlative ''largest''. These present an innovation and improvement, which engages the audience to read the particular sections of the webpage in order to find out more. Whereas, the use of verbs such as ''share'', ''analyse'' and ''support'' represent the action towards significant changes, which can then persuade the reader to contribute in it by sharing their views for instance.

Language and representation task

Throughout the conversation I have spotted several factors which represent me as a speaker in a distinctive way. Paralinguistics such as the quiet tone of voice which I used during the conversation, creates an impression of me not being a very confident speaker. However, the tone of voice applied might have also been adapted, in order to make an impression of a calm and thoughtful speaker. I have also discovered that my voice during the conversation was not only quiet but also gentle, which helps the listeners interpret my personality and some of my personal features such as being very feminine. My accent, representing my national background can be easily noticed by the listener. Being a bilingual speaker also has an impact on the tempo of the conversation, as some of the utterances were pronounced slightly slower due to the longer thinking time. However, this may have also been caused by the uncertainty and lack of planning beforehand. Gestures and facial impressions are also a very important part of paralinguistics, as they enable the listener to identify the aspects of the speaker’s personality. For instance, I have not used any gestures whilst taking part in the conversation which may create an impression of me being quite clear on the topic and having the ability of enhancing the message just through the use compound sentences. The facial expressions which I used were focus and concentration, which can suggest that I was effectively listening to the information shared by the other participant in order to engage in the conversation later. Regarding the conversation and its content, I did not take a great amount of air time hence I did not feel confident enough to explore the topic further. Therefore I only briefly spoke about the jobs of my parents and asked the other participant a few interrogatives linking to her job and responsibilities. I mostly used the third person verbs such as ‘she’ and ‘he’ to avoid the repetition of the personal pronouns ‘mum’ and ‘dad’. I did not use any words of a certain lexical field or jargon as I did not focus on these aspects during the conversation. Colloquial language was not a part of the conversation, but the language used was quite informal as there was a limited number of words used. The reason for this use of less advanced language was the convergence of the language to suit the audience- teenagers. Whilst analysing the transcript of the conversation, I have also noticed that I used certain fillers throughout the conversation such as ‘um’ and ‘well’, which I might have used as a result of stress. These, allowed me to receive some more air time in order to remind myself what I was going to speak about next. However, the use of fillers as such, may come across as the lack of preparation and can make the listener think that they are a part of my idiolect. The conversation did partly support Shegloff’s conversational model, as it was easily flowing following it with one speaker at a time aspect. The transition was also quite quick and simple as both participants were ready to take over and explore the topic. There was no interruptions and clear signs of being an active listener through the use of interrogatives such as ‘’What are your responsibilities?’’

Representation of UNICEF

Donate today and help save children's lives

Every five seconds a child under 5 dies of a preventable cause. It's shocking, but with your help we can change this.
In fact child survival rates are better now than ever before. And we've already improved the lives of more children around the world than any other charity. So it really is possible to make a difference. But there are still millions of children who need our help.
Our goal is to give every child the best possible start in life. Whether that means immunising them against deadly diseases (like the child pictured above in Burundi) or making sure they can go to school. With your support we can continue to be there for children, wherever they need us.
Please donate and support our ongoing work with children around the world.

Source: http://www.unicef.org.uk/landing-pages/donate-unicef-charity/?gclid=?utm_source=bing&utm_medium=cpc&utm_term=charity%20organisation%20uk&utm_campaign=Bing_Generic_Donate_UK%20%5BE%5D&sissr=1

The organisation uses a very powerful and effective strategy presented in the title: 'donate today and help save children's lives'. They encourage people to donate the money as quick as possible by saying that whoever do so will become a hero. The plurality of the verb child makes people want to donate the money even as they will save more than just one life. The use of statistics at the very beginning, already provides the reader with an overview of the issue as they can imagine it. The verb 'preventable' makes the reader think that the cause can be avoided so why isn't it? Therefore the reader may already start thinking of providing those children with the financial help and as reading the next sentence the reader is being encouraged to do so even more by the organisation.
In the next paragraph UNICEF presents its organisational power by stating that they have already improved the lives of more children around the world than any other charity. It also presents their hierarchy and makes the reader think that this organisation is the most effective. The organisation also tries to tell the reader that those who make the donations almost become a part of the organisation. ..''Millions of children who need our help..'' Therefore, they not only contribute in the action of saving children's lives but they also make the organisation stronger and even more successful. UNICEF also clearly states its goal and tries to say that through reader's support and donation this goal can be met. Towards the end of the text, the organisation uses some politeness strategies by using the phrase 'please'. This makes an impression that readers help is needed, otherwise the organisation will not meet its goal and millions of children will die. The organisation is almost begging the reader to donate the money, as every small donation counts and can make a big change.

Language and representation

''When I look at you'' by Miley Cyrus

 

..'Everybody needs inspiration
Everybody needs a song
A beautiful melody
When the night's so long

'Cause there is no guarantee
That this life is easy

Yeah, when my world is falling apart
When there's no light to break up the dark
That's when I, I
I look at you

When the waves
Are flooding the shore and I can't
Find my way home anymore
That's when I, I
I look at you

When I look at you, I see forgiveness
I see the truth
You love me for who I am
Like the stars hold the moon
Right there where they belong
And I know I'm not alone..''

 

The verbs ''flooding'' and ''falling apart'' present a very negative image of destruction. Something that has been destroyed and cannot be repaired. They also suggest of the mental state of the writer and the emptiness which she experiences. However, the writer used an adjective 'beautiful' which shows a contrast in the text as it presents positivity and passion. 'Shore', 'waves', 'stars' and 'moon'- all these nouns are linked to the natural beauty of the world that we live in. Comparing the lover with these nouns presents his importance. A shore needs waves to make a whole, stars need the moon to create the night sky and Miley needs her lover for her life to be completed. 'Dark' and 'alone' present the feeling of sadness and loneliness expressed by Miley in the song. Dark is associated with the fear and uncertainty. A person locked up in the dark room will feel uncertain whether there is also someone else in there who can harm them or if they all alone. Therefore they feel fear, just as Miley does. She also compares her lover to 'forgiveness' and 'truth' suggesting that she would forgive him for whatever he does as she trusts him.

 

 

Language and gender research task

John Grey's popular book 'Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus':

• It is a proposition that men and women differ fundamentally in the way they use language to communicate.
• Men's goals in using language tend to be about getting things done, whereas women's tend to be about making connections to other people. Men talk more about things and facts, whereas women talk more about people, relationships and feelings.
• Language and communication matter more to women than to men; women talk more than men.
• Women are more verbally skilled than men.
• Men's way of using language is competitive, reflecting their general interest in acquiring and maintaining status; women's use of language is cooperative, reflecting their preference for equality and harmony.
• These differences routinely lead to "miscommunication" between the sexes, with each sex misinterpreting the other's intentions. This causes problems in contexts where men and women regularly interact, and especially in heterosexual relationships.

Source: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/oct/01/gender.books

 Mary Beard's ideas about women's voices not being valued

• Historian Mary Beard believes that female broadcasters must lower their voices to sound like men if they want to be successful.
• Professor Beard also believes broadcasters must address the position of women across TV, not just on panel shows, in order to make their voices more valued.
• It’s not a coincidence that even on radio, the successful women presenters tend to have unusually deep (ie male) voices.

Source: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2572722/Women-need-sound-like-men-succeed-broadcasting-says-Mary-Beard.html

O'Barr and Atkins's challenge to deficit theory

• William O’Barr and Bowman Atkins are known for developing the idea that language differences are situation-specific, relying on who has the authority and power in a conversation, rather than the gender of the people involved.
• This challenged the theory that Lakoff had presented, that variants in speech were due to gender. A simple example to explain their theory may be that in an interview situation, if a man were interviewing a woman, then perhaps the man would seem more assertive in the conversation, not due to his gender, but simply because he has more authority in that circumstance.
• The theorists studied courtroom cases for 30 months, observing a broad spectrum of witnesses, and examining them for the ten basic speech differences between men and women that Lakoff proposed. These differences or “women’s language” components consisted of; hedges, empty adjectives,  super-polite forms, apologising more, speaking less frequently, avoiding coarse language or expletives, tag questions, hyper-correct grammar and punctuation, indirect requests and using tone to emphasise certain words.
• O’Barr and Atkins discovered that Lakoff’s proposed differences were not necessarily the result of being a woman, but of being powerless. They used three men and three women to prove this. The first man and first woman both spoke with a high frequency of “women’s language” components. The woman was a 68-year-old housewife and the man drove an ambulance, suggesting stereotypically that power and control would perhaps be lacking from their lives. Pair number 3, a doctor and policeman respectively, both testified as expert witnesses, suggesting that the power they experienced in their jobs and lives meant that they had less components of “women’s language”. Man and woman number 2 fell between the first two pairs in the frequency of hedges and tag questions in their speech, ie. “Women’s language” component.
• From this study, O’Barr and Atkins concluded that the quoted speech patterns were “neither characteristic of all women, nor limited to only women”. According to the researchers, the women who used the lowest frequency of women’s language traits had an unusually high status

Source: https://aggslanguage.wordpress.com/2009/09/20/obarr-atkins/

The effect of written and computer-mediated forms on gendered language

• This experiment examined what situational and dispositional features moderate the effects of linguistic gender cues on gender stereotyping in anonymous, text-based computer-mediated communication.
•  Participants played a trivia game with an ostensible partner via computer, whose comments represented either masculine or feminine language styles. Consistent with the social identity model of deindividuation effects, those who did not exchange brief personal profiles with their partner (i.e., depersonalization) were more likely to tell their partner’s gender from the language used, than those who did.
• Depersonalization, however, facilitated stereotype-consistent conformity behaviors only among gender-typed individuals; that is, participants conformed more to their masculine- than feminine-comment partners, and men were less conforming than were women, only when they were both gender-typed and depersonalized.

Source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2007.00310.x/abstract;jsessionid=98590259854FEDB479210F5C28997C27.f01t01?userIsAuthenticated=false&deniedAccessCustomisedMessage

Beattie's challenge to Zimmerman and West - evaluating data

"The problem with this is that you might simply have one very voluble man in the study which has a disproportionate effect on the total."

• Beattie also questions the meaning of interruptions: : "Why do interruptions necessarily reflect dominance? Can interruptions not arise from other sources? Do some interruptions not reflect interest and involvement?
• Beattie’s own study:

He recorded some 10 hours of tutorial discussion and some 557 interruptions (compared with 55 recorded by Zimmerman and West). Beattie found that women and men interrupted with more or less equal frequency (men 34.1, women 33.8) - so men did interrupt more, but by a margin so slight as not to be statistically significant.                                                                                                                        

Source: The student room- powerpoint presentation